Approaches in Psychology

Introduction

Psychology is not a single, unified discipline but a collection of different perspectives, or approaches, each offering a distinct way of explaining human behaviour. This section covers the six major approaches in psychology: behaviourism, social learning theory, the cognitive approach, the biological approach, the psychodynamic approach, and the humanistic approach. Understanding these approaches and their relative strengths and limitations is essential for evaluating theories and research across all topics.

Key Concepts

The Behaviourist Approach

Behaviourism emerged in the early 20th century as a reaction to the introspective methods of early psychology. Behaviourists argue that psychology should be a science based on observable, measurable behaviour, not unobservable mental processes.

Key assumptions:

• All behaviour is learned from the environment through conditioning.
• Psychology should study only observable, measurable behaviour (not internal mental processes).
• Animals and humans learn in the same way, so animal research can inform our understanding of human behaviour.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov, 1927):

Learning through association. A neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it becomes a conditioned stimulus that produces a conditioned response.

Pavlov demonstrated this with dogs. The unconditioned stimulus (food) inherently produced an unconditioned response (salivation). By repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus (a bell) with food, the bell became a conditioned stimulus that produced salivation (conditioned response) even without food.

Key processes:

• Acquisition: The initial learning of the stimulus-response association.
• Extinction: The gradual loss of the conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
• Spontaneous recovery: The reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period.
• Stimulus generalisation: Responding to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
• Stimulus discrimination: Responding only to the specific conditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner, 1938):

Learning through consequences. Behaviour is shaped by its outcomes — reinforced behaviour increases, punished behaviour decreases.

Skinner demonstrated this using the “Skinner Box.” Rats learned to press a lever to receive a food pellet (positive reinforcement) or to avoid an electric shock (negative reinforcement).

Types of reinforcement:

• Positive reinforcement: Adding something pleasant to increase behaviour (e.g., food reward, praise).
• Negative reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant to increase behaviour (e.g., taking painkillers removes pain, increasing painkiller use).
• Positive punishment: Adding something unpleasant to decrease behaviour (e.g., a telling-off).
• Negative punishment: Removing something pleasant to decrease behaviour (e.g., grounding a teenager).

Schedules of reinforcement: Skinner found that the pattern and frequency of reinforcement affects learning and extinction. Continuous reinforcement (rewarding every response) leads to fast learning but fast extinction. Partial reinforcement (intermittent rewards) leads to slower learning but much greater resistance to extinction.

Social Learning Theory (SLT)

Albert Bandura (1961, 1963) proposed that behaviour is not only learned through direct experience (as behaviourists argued) but also through observation and imitation of others.

Key assumptions:

• Behaviour is learned through observation and imitation of role models.
• Mental (cognitive) processes are important — learning is not merely stimulus-response.
• Mediational processes determine whether a behaviour is imitated.

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment (1961):

Procedure: 72 children (36 boys, 36 girls) aged 3–5 years were divided into three groups. One group observed an adult model behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll (hitting, kicking, using a hammer, verbal aggression). The second group observed a non-aggressive model. The third group was a control with no model. Children were then mildly frustrated and observed playing with toys, including the Bobo doll.

Findings: Children who observed the aggressive model showed significantly more aggressive behaviour towards the Bobo doll, imitating specific aggressive acts they had seen. Boys were more physically aggressive than girls, but both genders imitated verbal aggression equally.

Variation (Bandura and Walters, 1963): Showed that children would imitate aggressive behaviour seen on film, not just live models, and even from a cartoon character — demonstrating that vicarious reinforcement was sufficient.

Mediational processes: Bandura identified four mental processes that mediate whether a behaviour is imitated:

1. Attention: The observer must pay attention to the model’s behaviour.
2. Retention: The observer must remember the behaviour.
3. Motor reproduction: The observer must be physically capable of performing the behaviour.
4. Motivation: The observer must have a reason to imitate the behaviour (e.g., the expectation of reward).

Vicarious reinforcement: The observer does not need to be directly reinforced. If they see a model being rewarded for a behaviour, they are more likely to imitate it. If they see a model being punished, they are less likely to imitate it (vicarious punishment).

Identification: Observers are more likely to imitate models they identify with — those who are similar to them (same age, gender, status), powerful, or attractive.

The Cognitive Approach

The cognitive approach emerged in the 1950s and 1960s as the “cognitive revolution,” rejecting behaviourism’s exclusion of mental processes.

Key assumptions:

• Mental processes (thinking, memory, perception, attention) can and should be studied scientifically.
• The mind processes information like a computer — input → processing → output.
• Mental processes operate on stored knowledge, using schemas to organise and interpret information.

The information processing model: The mind receives input from the senses (encoding), processes and stores it (storage), and retrieves it when needed (retrieval). This is analogous to a computer, with sensory input as data, cognitive processes as software, and the brain as hardware.

Schemas: Mental frameworks that organise knowledge and expectations about people, objects, events, and situations. Schemas develop through experience and influence how we interpret new information. They enable us to process information quickly but can lead to distortions (e.g., stereotypes, prejudice).

Cognitive neuroscience: The scientific study of the neural basis of cognitive processes. Uses brain imaging techniques (fMRI, PET scans) to identify which brain regions are active during specific cognitive tasks. This bridges the gap between the cognitive approach and the biological approach.

The role of inference: Cognitive psychologists must make inferences about mental processes based on observable behaviour. We cannot directly observe memory, attention, or thinking — we can only measure their effects on behaviour. This is a fundamental methodological challenge.

The Biological Approach

The biological approach explains behaviour in terms of physical processes in the body, including genetics, the nervous system, hormones, and brain structure.

Key assumptions:

• All behaviour has a biological basis in the genes, nervous system, and hormones.
• Behaviour is determined by biological processes.
• Mental disorders have physical causes (e.g., neurotransmitter imbalances, genetic predisposition).

Genetic basis of behaviour:

Genes are inherited from parents and influence physical and psychological characteristics. The nature vs. nurture debate is central — behaviourism emphasises nurture (environment), while the biological approach emphasises nature (genetics).

Twin studies compare concordance rates between identical (monozygotic/MZ) twins, who share 100% of their genes, and fraternal (dizygotic/DZ) twins, who share approximately 50%. Higher concordance in MZ twins suggests a genetic component.

Adoption studies compare adopted children with their biological and adoptive parents. Similarity to biological parents suggests a genetic influence; similarity to adoptive parents suggests an environmental influence.

Neurochemistry: Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses. Imbalances are associated with mental disorders — low serotonin with depression, high dopamine with schizophrenia.

Brain structure: Different brain regions have different functions. The prefrontal cortex is involved in decision-making; the amygdala processes fear; the hippocampus is crucial for memory formation. Brain damage (e.g., from stroke or injury) can reveal the functions of specific regions.

Evolution and behaviour: Some behaviours have evolved through natural selection because they enhanced survival and reproduction. For example, the fight-or-flight response is an evolutionary adaptation to threat.

The Psychodynamic Approach

Sigmund Freud (1900, 1915, 1923) proposed that behaviour is driven by unconscious desires, conflicts, and motivations.

Key assumptions:

• Much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious motives and desires.
• Early childhood experiences shape adult personality.
• The mind is composed of three parts: the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

The structure of personality (Freud, 1923):

1. The id (primitive, pleasure principle): Present from birth, the id operates entirely in the unconscious. It demands immediate gratification of basic biological drives (hunger, sex, aggression).

2. The ego (rational, reality principle): Develops around age 2. The ego mediates between the id’s demands and external reality. It operates in the conscious and preconscious, using reason to find socially acceptable ways to satisfy the id’s desires.

3. The superego (moral, morality principle): Develops around age 3–5 through the resolution of the Oedipus/Electra complex. The superego represents internalised moral standards from parents and society. It creates feelings of guilt when standards are violated.

Defence mechanisms: The ego uses defence mechanisms to reduce anxiety caused by conflicts between the id and superego:

• Repression: Pushing unacceptable thoughts into the unconscious (e.g., forgetting a traumatic event).
• Denial: Refusing to accept reality (e.g., a person with addiction denying they have a problem).
• Displacement: Redirecting feelings from a threatening target to a safer one (e.g., being angry at your boss but shouting at your partner).
• Projection: Attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings to others (e.g., accusing someone else of being jealous when you are the jealous one).

Psychosexual stages: Freud proposed five stages of development, each centred on a different erogenous zone. Fixation at a stage (due to over- or under-gratification) leads to lasting personality characteristics:

Stage	Age	Focus	Fixation result
Oral	0–1	Mouth (feeding)	Dependency, smoking, overeating
Anal	1–3	Anus (toilet training)	Anal-retentive (perfectionist) or anal-expulsive (messy)
Phallic	3–6	Genitals	Oedipus/Electra complex; difficulty with authority
Latency	6–12	Dormant	N/A
Genital	12+	Mature sexual interests	Healthy adult relationships

The Oedipus complex: Boys aged 3–6 develop sexual desires for their mother and view their father as a rival. The boy fears castration by the father (castration anxiety). This is resolved when the boy identifies with the father, internalising his moral standards (forming the superego).

The Electra complex: The female equivalent — girls develop desires for their father and experience penis envy. Resolved by identifying with the mother.

Dream analysis: Freud believed dreams are the “royal road to the unconscious.” The manifest content (the dream as remembered) is a disguised version of the latent content (the true, unconscious meaning). Dream analysis aims to uncover the latent content.

The Humanistic Approach

The humanistic approach emerged in the 1960s as a “third force” in psychology, rejecting both behaviourism’s determinism and psychoanalysis’s focus on pathology.

Key assumptions:

• People have free will and are active agents in their own lives.
• People are inherently good and strive for self-improvement.
• Psychology should study the whole person (holism), not just parts.
• Subjective experience (phenomenology) is the most important source of knowledge.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943, 1954):

Maslow proposed that human motivation is organised in a hierarchy of five levels. Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs become motivating:

1. Physiological needs: Food, water, warmth, rest.
2. Safety needs: Security, safety.
3. Love and belonging needs: Intimate relationships, friends.
4. Esteem needs: Prestige, feeling of accomplishment.
5. Self-actualisation: Achieving one’s full potential, including creative activities.

Self-actualisation is at the pinnacle and is achieved only by a small minority. Maslow studied people he considered self-actualised (e.g., Einstein, Gandhi) and identified common characteristics: autonomy, creativity, acceptance of self and others, deep relationships.

Rogers’ Person-Centred Therapy (1951, 1959):

Carl Rogers argued that psychological distress arises from a mismatch between the self-concept (how we see ourselves) and the ideal self (how we would like to be). This mismatch creates incongruence, leading to anxiety and low self-esteem.

Rogers proposed that healthy development requires three conditions from others:

1. Unconditional positive regard (UPR): Acceptance and love without conditions. If a child receives UPR, they develop a positive self-concept. If love is conditional (“I will love you if you behave well”), the child develops conditions of worth and incongruence.
2. Empathy: The therapist understands the client’s experience from their perspective.
3. Genuineness (congruence): The therapist is authentic and transparent, not hiding behind a professional facade.

Client-centred therapy: The client directs the session, and the therapist provides a supportive, non-judgmental environment through UPR, empathy, and genuineness. This helps the client move towards self-actualisation.

Key Studies

Study	Researcher(s)	Year	Method	Key Findings	Evaluation
Classical conditioning	Pavlov	1927	Lab experiment (animals)	Dogs learned to salivate to a bell through repeated pairing with food	Well controlled; animal research limits generalisability
Operant conditioning	Skinner	1938	Lab experiment (animals)	Rats learned to press a lever for food; reinforcement schedules affected behaviour	Demonstrated learning principles; artificial; reductionist
Bobo doll	Bandura	1961	Lab experiment	Children imitated aggressive behaviour observed in adult models	Supports SLT; artificial setting; ethical concerns (teaching aggression)
Little Hans	Freud	1909	Case study	5-year-old boy’s phobia of horses interpreted as displaced Oedipus complex	Rich qualitative data; subjective interpretation; unfalsifiable
Conditioning of phobia	Watson & Rayner	1920	Case study / experiment	Little Albert conditioned to fear a white rat	Supports classical conditioning; single case; serious ethical issues
Self-actualisation	Maslow	1954	Biographical analysis	Identified characteristics of self-actualised individuals	Positive perspective; small, unrepresentative sample; subjective criteria

Key Terminology

Term	Definition
Classical conditioning	Learning through association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus
Operant conditioning	Learning through consequences — reinforcement and punishment
Positive reinforcement	Adding something pleasant to increase the likelihood of a behaviour
Negative reinforcement	Removing something unpleasant to increase the likelihood of a behaviour
Vicarious reinforcement	Learning by observing the consequences of others’ behaviour
Mediational processes	Cognitive processes (attention, retention, reproduction, motivation) that mediate learning
Schema	A mental framework for organising and interpreting information
Cognitive neuroscience	The study of the neural basis of cognitive processes
Inference	The process of drawing conclusions about mental processes from observable behaviour
Id	The primitive, unconscious part of personality driven by the pleasure principle
Ego	The rational part of personality that mediates between the id and reality
Superego	The moral component of personality that internalises societal standards
Defence mechanism	An unconscious strategy used by the ego to reduce anxiety
Self-actualisation	The process of realising and fulfilling one’s potential
Unconditional positive regard	Acceptance and caring without conditions or qualifications
Incongruence	A mismatch between the self-concept and the ideal self
Conditions of worth	Conditions that must be met for a person to feel valued and accepted
Free will	The belief that individuals can choose their behaviour freely
Determinism	The belief that behaviour is caused by forces beyond the individual’s control

Evaluation Points

Behaviourism

Strengths: Highly scientific — based on observable behaviour and controlled experiments. Has led to effective real-world applications (systematic desensitisation, token economies, behaviour modification). Established clear principles of learning.

Limitations: Environmental determinism — ignores the role of free will, cognition, and biological factors. Animal research may not generalise to humans. Reductionist — reduces complex behaviour to stimulus-response associations.

Social Learning Theory

Strengths: Acknowledges the role of cognitive processes (mediational processes), making it a more complete explanation than behaviourism. Supported by empirical research (Bandura’s Bobo doll studies). Explains cultural differences in behaviour (different role models in different cultures).

Limitations: Underestimates biological factors (e.g., hormonal influences on aggression). Bobo doll studies are artificial — hitting a doll is not the same as real aggression. Demand characteristics may have influenced children’s behaviour.

Cognitive Approach

Strengths: Scientific — uses controlled experiments and objective measures (reaction times, brain imaging). Has led to effective treatments (CBT for depression, anxiety). More comprehensive than behaviourism as it includes mental processes.

Limitations: Machine reductionism — the computer analogy oversimplifies human cognition (people have emotions, are affected by social context). Relies on inference — we cannot directly observe mental processes. Ignores biological factors and emotional influences on thinking.

Biological Approach

Strengths: Highly scientific — uses objective, measurable variables (genes, brain scans, neurotransmitter levels). Has led to effective treatments (drug therapies). Strong real-world application (understanding mental disorders).

Limitations: Biological determinism — implies behaviour is entirely determined by biology, ignoring free will and environmental influences. Reductionist — reducing complex behaviour to genes and neurotransmitters. Concordance rates in twin studies are never 100%, indicating environmental factors also play a role.

Psychodynamic Approach

Strengths: Provides a comprehensive theory of human behaviour covering the whole lifespan. Highlighted the importance of early childhood experience and the unconscious. Has influenced therapy (psychoanalysis, psychodynamic therapy).

Limitations: Unfalsifiable — many concepts (the unconscious, defence mechanisms) cannot be empirically tested. Based on case studies of a small, unrepresentative sample (Victorian Viennese women). Overemphasises sexual drives. Deterministic — behaviour is determined by unconscious forces and childhood experiences.

Humanistic Approach

Strengths: Acknowledges free will — offers a non-deterministic, optimistic view of human nature. Holistic — considers the whole person. Has led to effective therapy (client-centred therapy). Emphasises personal growth and potential.

Limitations: Unscientific — concepts like self-actualisation are difficult to define and measure. Cultural bias — emphasis on individualism and personal achievement reflects Western values. Limited explanatory power — cannot readily explain severe mental disorders (e.g., schizophrenia).

Methodology

Different approaches use different research methods:

• Behaviourism: Laboratory experiments with animals and humans. High control but low ecological validity.
• SLT: Laboratory experiments with observational components. Controlled but potentially artificial.
• Cognitive: Laboratory experiments measuring reaction times, error rates, and brain activity. Scientific but may oversimplify real cognition.
• Biological: Twin studies, adoption studies, brain imaging (fMRI, PET), drug trials. Objective but correlational (brain imaging) or reductionist.
• Psychodynamic: Case studies, dream analysis, clinical interviews. Rich data but subjective and difficult to generalise.
• Humanistic: Self-report, Q-sort methodology, qualitative interviews. Captures subjective experience but lacks scientific rigour.

Common Pitfalls

1. Confusing the approaches’ treatments and therapies: Systematic desensitisation is behavioural; CBT is cognitive; SSRIs are biological; psychoanalysis is psychodynamic; client-centred therapy is humanistic. Do not apply treatments from the wrong approach.
2. Confusing positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement: Both increase behaviour. Positive reinforcement adds something pleasant; negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant. Negative reinforcement is not the same as punishment (which decreases behaviour).
3. Confusing the id, ego, and superego: The id is primitive and unconscious (pleasure principle), the ego is rational (reality principle), and the superego is moral (morality principle). They are not the same as the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

Worked Examples

Example 1: 16-Mark Essay

Question: Compare the behaviourist and cognitive approaches in psychology. [16 marks]

Model Answer:

The behaviourist and cognitive approaches are two of the most influential perspectives in psychology. While both aim to explain behaviour scientifically, they differ fundamentally in what they consider the proper subject matter of psychology and the methods they employ.

The behaviourist approach, pioneered by Pavlov (1927) and Skinner (1938), argues that psychology should study only observable behaviour. Behaviourists reject the study of mental processes as unscientific and instead focus on how behaviour is learned through conditioning — classical conditioning (learning through association) and operant conditioning (learning through consequences). All behaviour, according to behaviourists, is determined by environmental stimuli and reinforcement history. This represents a strong environmental determinism.

In contrast, the cognitive approach, which emerged in the 1950s and 1960s, argues that mental processes are essential to understanding behaviour. Cognitive psychologists use the computer analogy to describe the mind as an information processor — receiving input from the senses, processing it through cognitive systems (attention, memory, reasoning), and producing behavioural output. Cognitive psychologists accept that mental processes cannot be directly observed but argue they can be inferred from behaviour using scientific methods such as reaction time experiments and brain imaging.

One key similarity between the approaches is their commitment to scientific method. Both use controlled experiments to test hypotheses, and both have produced robust, replicable findings. Behaviourists use laboratory experiments with carefully controlled stimuli and measurable responses (e.g., Skinner’s operant conditioning chamber). Cognitive psychologists use reaction time tasks, memory experiments, and neuroimaging to study mental processes objectively. This scientific rigour gives both approaches high credibility compared to the psychodynamic or humanistic approaches.

However, the approaches differ critically in their view of what drives behaviour. For behaviourists, behaviour is a mechanical response to environmental stimuli — a deterministic view that leaves no room for free will or cognitive mediation. The cognitive approach, while still broadly deterministic (mental processes follow rules), allows for a more active role of the individual in processing information, making decisions, and choosing responses. Bandura’s social learning theory bridges the two approaches by incorporating cognitive mediational processes (attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation) into a framework that retains behaviourism’s emphasis on learning from the environment.

A major strength of the behaviourist approach is its practical applications. Behaviourist principles have been applied to education (programmed learning), therapy (systematic desensitisation, token economies), and behaviour management. However, behaviourism is criticised for being reductionist — reducing complex human behaviour to simple stimulus-response associations — and for ignoring the role of cognition, emotion, and biology.

The cognitive approach addresses some of these limitations by acknowledging the importance of mental processes. It has led to effective treatments, particularly CBT, which is the treatment of choice for depression and anxiety disorders. Cognitive neuroscience has further strengthened the approach by providing objective evidence for the neural basis of cognitive processes. However, the cognitive approach is itself criticised for machine reductionism — the computer analogy ignores emotion, motivation, and social context. People are not merely information processors; they are emotional, social beings whose thinking is influenced by feelings and relationships.

Both approaches share a tendency towards determinism. Behaviourism proposes environmental determinism; the cognitive approach proposes cognitive determinism (behaviour is determined by information processing). Neither approach fully accounts for the role of free will or individual agency, which the humanistic approach considers central.

In conclusion, the behaviourist and cognitive approaches share a commitment to scientific method but differ fundamentally in their subject matter and explanatory mechanisms. The cognitive approach offers a more complete account of human behaviour by including mental processes, but both approaches are limited by their reductionism and determinism. An integrated approach, combining cognitive, behavioural, and biological perspectives, provides the most comprehensive understanding.

Example 2: 16-Mark Essay

Question: Evaluate the humanistic approach. Refer to Maslow and Rogers in your answer. [16 marks]

Model Answer:

The humanistic approach, developed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow in the 1960s, emerged as a “third force” in psychology, rejecting the determinism of behaviourism and psychoanalysis. It is distinctive in its emphasis on free will, personal growth, and the inherent goodness of human nature.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1943, 1954) proposes that human motivation is organised in a hierarchy of five levels. At the base are physiological needs (food, water, warmth), followed by safety needs, love and belonging needs, and esteem needs. At the pinnacle is self-actualisation — the drive to fulfil one’s potential and become the best version of oneself. Maslow argued that lower-level needs must be met before higher-level needs become motivating. He estimated that only about 2% of the population achieve full self-actualisation. Maslow studied individuals he considered self-actualised, such as Albert Einstein and Eleanor Roosevelt, identifying common characteristics including autonomy, creativity, acceptance of self and others, and a capacity for deep relationships.

Rogers’ contribution focused on the concept of the self. He proposed that every individual has a self-concept (how they see themselves) and an ideal self (how they would like to be). When there is a close match between the two, the person is congruent and psychologically healthy. When there is a significant mismatch, the person experiences incongruence, leading to anxiety, low self-esteem, and psychological distress.

Rogers argued that incongruence develops when children receive conditional love — love that is given only when they meet certain conditions. These conditions of worth lead children to believe they are only valued when they behave in certain ways, causing them to distort their self-concept to match others’ expectations. In contrast, children who receive unconditional positive regard (UPR) — acceptance and love without conditions — develop a healthy, congruent self-concept.

Based on these principles, Rogers developed client-centred therapy. The therapist provides three core conditions: unconditional positive regard (accepting the client without judgement), empathy (understanding the client’s experience from their perspective), and genuineness (being authentic and transparent). In this supportive environment, the client is empowered to explore their feelings, reduce incongruence, and move towards self-actualisation.

A major strength of the humanistic approach is its positive, optimistic view of human nature. Unlike the psychodynamic approach, which focuses on unconscious conflicts and pathology, the humanistic approach emphasises growth, potential, and personal agency. It treats individuals as active agents capable of change, rather than passive victims of their environment or unconscious drives. This has made it influential in counselling, education, and healthcare.

Furthermore, client-centred therapy has empirical support. Elliot et al. (2004) conducted a meta-analysis demonstrating that person-centred therapies were effective for a range of psychological difficulties, comparable in effectiveness to CBT. The emphasis on the therapeutic relationship (warmth, empathy, genuineness) is now recognised as a key factor in the success of all therapies, not just humanistic ones.

However, the humanistic approach has significant limitations. Its concepts are difficult to test scientifically. Self-actualisation, congruence, and unconditional positive regard are subjective constructs that are hard to define and measure objectively. This makes the approach less rigorous than behaviourism or the biological approach. Maslow’s characterisation of self-actualisation was based on a small, unrepresentative sample of exceptional individuals, and the criteria he used were subjective.

The approach is also culturally biased. The emphasis on individual achievement, personal autonomy, and self-fulfilment reflects Western, individualist values. In collectivist cultures, where group harmony and interdependence are valued over individual expression, the concept of self-actualisation may be less relevant. Heine et al. (1999) found that concepts of self-esteem and self-enhancement are less important in East Asian cultures than in Western cultures, challenging the universality of Maslow’s hierarchy.

Additionally, the humanistic approach has limited explanatory power for severe mental disorders. While it may be effective for mild to moderate psychological difficulties, it is less able to explain or treat conditions such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or severe OCD, which have strong biological components. The approach’s rejection of biological explanations and scientific method limits its applicability to these conditions.

In conclusion, the humanistic approach provides a valuable, optimistic perspective on human behaviour, emphasising free will, personal growth, and the importance of subjective experience. Its therapeutic applications have proven effective. However, its lack of scientific rigour, cultural bias, and limited applicability to severe mental disorders mean it is best used as one perspective among several, complementing rather than replacing other approaches.

Summary

The six approaches in psychology offer different perspectives on human behaviour:

• Behaviourism (Pavlov, Skinner) explains behaviour through classical and operant conditioning. Scientific but reductionist and determinist.
• Social learning theory (Bandura) adds cognitive mediational processes to behaviourism. More complete but still underplays biology.
• Cognitive approach studies mental processes using the computer analogy. Scientific and practical but may oversimplify human cognition.
• Biological approach explains behaviour through genes, neurochemistry, and brain structure. Objective but reductionist and deterministic.
• Psychodynamic approach (Freud) emphasises unconscious conflicts and childhood experience. Comprehensive but unfalsifiable and unscientific.
• Humanistic approach (Maslow, Rogers) emphasises free will and self-actualisation. Positive but unscientific and culturally biased.